The Reason You’re Over Weight

Bad Eating Habits Darlene Wilder ENGL135 March 20, 2010 ? Bad Eating Habits You think just because you eat at night that is the reason you’re over weight? True in a way, but the main cause in the United States for obesity is bad eating habits. Almost every citizen doesn’t know that extra eating, and extra late night snacking is a bad eating habit, which causes problems in the future. They practically thinks its normal the way they eat, but long term wise its causes bad health problems from bad eating habits. Bad eating habits can be unhealthy which can be treated by changing your diet and controlling how much you consume. Breaking bad habits is hard to do, using me for example, for years I had bad eating habits it was hard to control does late night cravens, but me as a person had to change for my health and for my children sake. A good starting point is to get very clear on what is considered to be benefiting you making the changes. It’s good to consult with your food doctor to see what they could prescribe you to do to stop your bad eating habits. I know from experience that dieting foods may not have a good taste, but fruits are good supplement to help you start eating healthy foods instead of junk food . This could be your first step on concurring your bad eating habits. Over time, habits become automatic, learned behaviors, and these are stronger than new habits you are trying to incorporate into your life. There are millions of ways for you to stop your bad eating habits; you as a person just have to accept the challenge to change bad eating habits. Instead of eating three full course meals a day, make two course meals a day with a complement of fruit. Try mixing up the meats you eat a week. Bad Eating Habits Instead of fried food have it baked, instead of bake have it steamed there’s plenty of ways to cut those greasy fats out of your lifestyle. Even those who manage there bad eating habits have a relapse from time to time; this could come from stress, loneliness, and depression. In my conclusion bad eating and late night snacking could cause a lot of health problems. Try to change your diet and control how much you consume into your body. The main thing is try to change your habits and consumption and you should not have a problem with being obesity and other medical conditions.

The Childhood Memory

Childhood is the shortest period but the most significant time in our life. I have got a lot of childhood memories. I think the childhood memory in kindergarten was the most impression memory in my mind. I have never forgotten the first day when I went to the kindergarten. I was 3 years old. My father took me to school. Because my father very strange, I didn’t allow to cry. My grandmother, who had taken care of me from I was born to now, was crying a lot when I went to school in the first day. I went to school. Everything was very strange to me. I didn’t know everybody. Then I saw many children cried. They didn’t want to leave their parent. All of them went to school in the first day like me. When my father left, I didn’t cry. I just stood in one corner and though about my grandmother. I missed her very much. I didn’t want to leave her, but I needed to go to school. Fortunately, the teacher was kind-heated and responsible. They were very friendly. They took care of us extremely well. They didn’t shout to us. One week ago, I had a lot of friend. After a short time, I got used to the atmosphere of the class. We played with toys, learned to sing and dance, role-played different animal character. When I was four, I took part in a theater club. To celebrate the Teacher Day, we decided to have a play. I was a main character in a play. A play was about two bear went through a bridge. I was one of two bear, I was a white bear. A white bear was walking along the bride when a white bear met a black bear. So we stopped and we had a chat. It just was a short play but it made us feel very happy. All the people in my family went to my school to see I acted. They were very proud of me. After finishing the play, all the people in the school ground were congratulate us by clapping hands. It was fascinating. I had never had beautiful experience before. I can’t forget the childhood memory. I love my childhood even though I am grown up. I think that was the most impression experience I have ever had. Up to now, I am very proud of me and feel happy when I remember this experience.

Why srotytelling for brands is important Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why srotytelling for brands is important - Essay Example From this, it follows that a brand story is more than mere content; it goes far beyond it. Overall, a brand story is a narrative that defines the brand itself and presents the strategy of the company. Also, as Bernadette Jiwa puts it, it is a â€Å"complete picture made up of facts, feelings, and interpretations†, which means it is the story created not only by the company itself but by its customers as well. The majority of brands do need brand stories to survive in the marketplace. Today, we live in the world, in which everybody tries to be better, faster, and stronger than others. This also applies to the marketplace where companies usually swim against the stream in the sea of a boundless content. Because of this, a brand story is what a brand needs in order not only to stay afloat but to come in first and be chosen among others. As Mark Di Somma writes in his article, â€Å"Without a storyline, a product just is that†. In fact, a truer word was never spoken. A storyline is needed to help consumers differentiate between what they are offered and choose what they want based not only on the functionality of a product for there are numbers of products, which are only the versions of one and the same thing. These days, any type of media can be chosen to tell a story of a brand, such as print, social networking websites, film, blogs etc. Each of them causes different reactions of t he audience; consequently, stories should be optimized to fit both the medium and the audience. A good example of a company with an effective brand story is Nike. As it is seen from its campaigns, the company does not sell just shoes or clothes. It rather sells attitude. In addition to this, the company creates a community around what they promote and sell. The Lego Story is also a good example of well-created story narrated by animated characters. The video shows the founder as well as the values of the company and its commitment to children. Finally, it is Jack Daniel’s

Bioengineering of the Human Race Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bioengineering of the Human Race - Case Study Example There are two viewpoints regarding the subject of bioengineering, one of then is that bioengineering is bad and will have negative consequences, the viewpoint shared by Francis Fukuyama. The second viewpoint is that bioengineering will bring good results to all humans and will have positive consequences, the viewpoint shared by Gregory Stock.  Francis Fukuyama does not support the bioengineering of humans because he thinks that we should respect natural selection. Natural selection is so perfect that have created connections between our genes that we can't even start to realize. This connection reflects also in our functioning within the ecosystems. How can we start bioengineering humans if we still not fully understand the functioning of mother nature?  Though we are cultural individuals, bioengineering would alter one way or another who we are. This would create strong social, and governmental changes. The risks are unpredictable. For Fukuyama bioengineering can even be co-rela ted to the Germans Nazi activity.  For Gregory Stock, bioengineering cant is stopped because people will demand to have the advantages of such technology. For Stocks, it can not be banned because someone somewhere will develop it, so it should be done in the U.S. because it is a country with good ethics.  For Stocks, the development of this technology will reduce the incidence of diseases, retard the aging effect, bring the possibility for the parents to â€Å"design† their child's physical and mental characteristics like the color of the eyes or the degree of intelligence of the child for example. The works of nature by trial and error can be very cruel, so, of course, everyone will see bioengineering of humans as a beneficial technology that everyone will what to have access to.

Wooden Chairs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Wooden Chairs - Essay Example Thirdly, pollution prevention mechanism is adopted to reduce air, water and soil pollution caused by wastes and gas emissions from the production of chairs. Lastly, recycling is used to put wastes into use and minimize wastes. In terms of implementation, the briefing paper suggests the formation of a five-member committee to oversee the implementation of the programme through planning, monitoring and evaluation. Wooden furniture production industries play significant roles in the process of development in tropical countries with abundant sources of wood and timber. Wooden furniture industries contribute economic benefits and enhance economic growth in such countries (International Trade Centre and International Tropical Timber Organization, 2005). Wood-processing companies such as companies producing wooden chairs create employment and expand the tax base of the country. They also promote the development of physical and institutional infrastructure needed for social and economic development of tropical countries. Furthermore, wooden chairs producers provide foreign exchange earnings and encourage investment in support industries. However, there are various challenges that wooden furniture producers need to consider in their business. This briefing paper will address one of the challenges affecting the company producing wooden chairs – environmental or social impact. Any organisation engaged in the production of goods using natural resources needs to consider environmental or social issues in order to enhance environmental and social sustainability for a sustainable development (International Trade Centre and International Tropical Timber Organization 2005). In this period when climate change is becoming real, human life is directly and indirectly affected. Therefore, companies producing furniture need to develop mechanisms that may be used to conserve natural resources and prevent

Artificial Intelligence Techniques Used In Autonomous Cars Research Paper

Artificial Intelligence Techniques Used In Autonomous Cars - Research Paper Example The robots ultimately take over their creators (Rouse). Physically, a robot contains the same components as humans have. In this scenario, a robot has some kind of motor, a portable physical structure, a power supply, a sensor system and a processing system "brain" that is responsible for controlling all of these components. Fundamentally, robots are human created forms of animal life but actually, they are machines which are intended to replicate human and animal behavior (Harris; Berlin). Artificial Neural Networks According to (Stergiou and Siganos), an artificial neural network is a data processing model that is inspired by the method of biological nervous systems information processing. Neural Network is also a renowned and heavily researched area of the AI. Stergiou & Siganos (2010) described that in the neural network field the working of the human neuron is copied into the computer-based systems. In addition, the neural network is an AI-based computer program which imitates t he human nervous systems’ working. It is based on the neural net which has weights on each node that can be adjusted to make suitable decisions. Such systems are typically seen in automatic driving systems that are under-research and at the early stages of development (Stergiou and Siganos; Laudon and Laudon). Autonomous Cars An autonomous car, is also known using a number of other names such as self-driving cars, driverless cars or robot cars. Basically, these cars are designed using artificial intelligence techniques with the purpose of supporting the human transportation facilities which are provided by a traditional car. In view of the fact that it is an autonomous vehicle, hence it can sense its atmosphere and navigate without requiring human interaction. Though, until now these robotic cars are mostly used as demo systems and prototypes, however, it is expected that in the future they will become more common.

Writing a Prospectus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Writing a Prospectus - Essay Example nt presents a short and snappy statement, which is backed up with literature and whose aim is to make clear the problem that makes the study worth to be conducted. The problem statement is followed by research questions, which are designed to express what the researcher is intending to achieve. The significance of the study provides back up on why the problem statement as well as the aim of the study is important. The conceptual framework is simply the theoretical foundation upon which the topic resolves - this further provides support for the topic. The researcher also formulates limitations and assumptions. Limitations define the factors that the researcher has no control over, such as resources and time. The assumptions are those issues that the researcher assumes so the research can be conducted within the relevant context. Towards the end of this chapter, it is important for the researcher to provide a definition of key terms, which are used in the rest of paper so the reader can understand them well (Cone & Foster, 2006). Review of the literature is usually the second chapter of the dissertation. It is in this chapter that the author writes what other theories, experts and researchers, among others; have written regarding the subject in question. Among the issues that should be covered in this chapter include the dependent and independent variables of the study, issues of measurement as well as a variety of alternative viewpoints. What is covered in this chapter must be congruent with the research questions and the aims of the study (Cone & Foster, 2006). This chapter in concerned with the methods of the study, which are used to help the researcher address the problem being investigated and answer the research questions raised in chapter one, as well as assist in testing of the hypothesis. In addition, the researcher is obliged to report on the population and sample of the study in this chapter. Specifically, the researcher must point out the technique

Supply and Demand Analytical Paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Supply and Demand Analytical Paper - Assignment Example Everybody knows that Apple compete with quality for it to remarkably set a highly competitive price for its product offerings. In the case of Apple, competitive price does not necessarily mean to be lower prices compared to its competitors’. In fact, in most of the time, it is higher than the others. However, it is clear that there is an ongoing high demand for Apple’s iPhone products despite its comparatively higher price than the competitors’ offerings’. The law of demand states that the price is highly associated with the number of quantity demanded and vice versa. This means that there will be more quantity demanded for a certain offering if the price goes down or as the price goes down, more quantity for the product will be demanded. As stated in Figure 1, the law of demand simply states that price has a linear relationship with the number of quantity demanded. However, knowing that Apple sells iPhone products at a price higher than its competitors’, considering a staggering increase of its revenue and profit, is an indication of increasing demand for its product offerings. On the other hand, there is a significant indication that the use of mobile phones has become a reality or part of life. In Europe alone, there was an ongoing perception that there will be no enough available frequency to satisfy the demand for talking, texting and surfing the Net on mobile phones (O’Brien). The broadcast spectrum is simply becoming a limited commodity for as long as more users are inclined to buy mobile phones and use them for either talking, texting or surfing the Net. As a result, there is no question as to why there is an increasing demand for Apple’s iPhone even if it was set at a higher price. Mobile phones, particularly smart phones, are not just wants but are becoming strong basic commodities. Apple has continued innovation of products that have improved functionalities that are known to use wider broadcast spectrums. In this case,

Offshore Outsourcing in Service Sector Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Offshore Outsourcing in Service Sector - Essay Example This essay stresses that  firms face complex decisions as they outsource reorganize the value chains as offshore outsource some activities. The firms consider the cost reduction, standardisation of product quality, human capital and risks involved in reorganizing their value chains. The reorganization of value chains have tended to retain the knowledge oriented skills in the industrialised nations while the lower value added functions are transferred to developing or less advanced countries. Certain industries demonstrate ‘path dependent’ tendencies towards concentration of the processes and people in certain localities of the advanced countries such as the Silicon Valley in California.As the paper highlights  the geographical concentration is driven by the access to talented software engineers and programmers. The proximity to large pool of sophisticated users also driven the locality concentration of such firms. The firms have realised the economic gains of geograp hically separating the programming functions to lower cost countries overseas while the introduction of networked computer terminals have added more impetus for relocation of the routine functions.  Offshoring software development in Ukraine is driven by the culture of research and availability of highly talented personnel due to reliance of IT technologies. The increased competitiveness has forced firms to reengineer in order to seek new knowledge and arbitrage costs.

Finance & Strategic Management Essay Example for Free

Finance Strategic Management Essay Over the past decades the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has continued to grow in importance and significance due to external pressure of diverse stakeholders, and has thereby become more prominent on companies’ agendas (Carroll Shabana, 2010; Beurden Gossling, 2008). The concept of CSR has been subject to considerable debate, commentary, theory building and continues research (Carroll Shabana, 2010). The question, of whether CSR investments result in financial and social benefits that outweigh its costs, is intensively scrutinized in existing literature (Schreck, 2001; Carroll Shabana, 2010). Adherents of CSR argue that it is in the long-term self-interest of corporations to be socially involved (Carroll Shabana, 2010; Barnet 2007). The overall logic is that CSR increases the trustworthiness of firms and strengthens the relationships with stakeholders. CSR may further result in decreased transaction costs and thereby improved corporate financial performance (CFP), by decreasing employee turnover, reducing operating costs, as well as functioning as a buffer in disruptive events (Carroll Shabana, 2010; Barnet, 2007). Barnett (2007) and Schreck (2011) argue that, if the financial benefits of CSR meet or exceed the costs, CSR can be justified as a rational investment. According to Kurucz, Colbert and Wheeler (2008), firms may attain four distinct benefits from engaging in CSR; cost and risk reduction; gaining competitive advantage; developing reputation and legitimacy; and seeking win–win outcomes through synergistic value creation. Critics of CSR typically use classical economic arguments, articulated most forcefully by Friedman (Carroll Shabana, 2010). Traditionally, the expenditures of CSR are considered an illegitimate waste of resources, which conflict with a firm’s responsibility to its shareholders (Schreck, 2011, Barnet, 2007). According to Friedman (1970) â€Å"There is one and only one social responsibility of business – to use it resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Friedman further argued that, social issues are not the concern of business people, and â€Å"the business of business is business† (Carroll Shabana, 2010). Even though CSR have been subject to critique, an increasing number of corporations are accepting responsibilities that extend well beyond the immediate interest of the owners, by considering â€Å"non-shareholder stakeholders’ concerns† (Grant, 2010; Clegg, Carter, Kornberger Schweitzer, 2011). Although the existence, direction and strength of possible links between CSR and CFP have been the subject of several empirical analyses (Schreck, 2011), and even though CSR is almost universally practiced, the results from empirical studies are inconclusive (De Bakker, Groenewegen Hond, 2005). After more than thirty years of research, it cannot clearly be concluded, whether a one-dollar investment in social initiatives returns more or less, than one dollar in benefits to shareholders (Barnet, 2007; Surroca Tribo Waddock, 2008). The inconclusiveness of empirical studies may be due to unclear and inconsistent definitions of key terms (De Bakker, Groenewegen Hond, 2005; Barnet, 2007), methodological differences (Carrol Shabana, 2010), and diverse approaches of measuring CSR and CFP (Beurden Gossling, 2008). In existing literature, CSR activities are often entioned to reduce risk, by avoiding the various consequences of moral disapproval by numerous stakeholders (Zadek, 2000). However, CSR derived risk reductions are considered as an ex-post beneficial outcome and not as a proactive risk management instrument to control or reduce idiosyncratic risk (firm specific). Under the assumption that, shareholders are risk adverse and prefer a high expected return (Bodie, Kane Marcus, 2011; Brealey, Myers Allen, 2011), a reduction of firm specific risk must be perceived as favorably. Provided that CSR investments can be applied as a risk management tool, CSR could be seen as investments by firms on behalf of its shareholders. Taking a shareholder perspective, this paper looks beyond the socially good deed of CSR, and focuses on the value of CSR as a method to reduce idiosyncratic risk without detriment of CFP. CSR and Risk Management Since this paper hypothesizes that, CSR can be applied as a risk management instrument to preserve CFP, risk need to be defined. Risk can be defined as the uncertainty about outcomes or events, especially with respect to the future (Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001). Widely risk management is defined as a managerial tool to avoid risk, transfer risk to another party, reduce risk, or in some cases accepting consequences of a certain risk (Froot, Scharfstein Stein, 1994). A shareholder’s perspective on risk management however, conflicts with the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) (Markowitz, 1952) and the Modigliani Miller’s theorem on capital structure (1958). CAPM theory states that, the cost of reducing idiosyncratic risks simultaneously reduces the expected return, and hence firm value (Markowitz, 1952). Risk reduction by holding a well-diversified portfolio of securities will be unattainable by risk management (Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009), why a profit-maximizing investor would not prefer risk management. Total firm risk is in general the combination of systematic and unsystematic risk (Hoje Haejung, 2012). Systematic risk, often referred to as market risk or non-diversifiable risk, is usually defined as the firm’s sensitivity to changes in the market average returns, which cannot be reduced by diversification of shareholders (Weber, 2008; Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001). Unsystematic risk is defined as idiosyncratic risk (Hoje Haejung, 2012; Luo Bhattacharya, 2009). Idiosyncratic risk is traditionally viewed as indifferent to the portfolio investors, since it is associated with specific companies and thereby can be reduced by diversified portfolios (Husted, 2005; Weber, 2008). Opposing idiosyncratic risk is of great relevance to the firm manager, whose very survival may depend upon taking adequate measures to reduce the idiosyncratic risk (Husted, 2005). Firms’ financial risk is often defined in terms of variability of returns (Orlitsky Benjamin 2001), or stock price volatility (Luo Bhattacharya, 2009), which is important risk measures, given that higher volatility implies greater investment risk and uncertain future cash flows (Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Oikonomou, Brooks Pavelin, 2012). A reduction in idiosyncratic risk reflects reduced variance in the future expected cash flows, which translates into greater shareholder wealth (Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Mishra Modi, 2012). In a strict Modigliani and Miller perspective, risk-management instruments are of no value, since these are purely financial transactions that do not affect the value of a company’s operating assets (Froot, Scharfstein Stein, 1994). The views of CAMP and Modigliani and Miller have been superseded by a postmodern view of risk management as an important strategic tool. Firms do invest in insurances even though the costs of these investments may be in excess of expected losses, which is in clear violation with the perfect market assumption (Smith Stulz, 1985; Stultz, 2002). If risk management can reduce firms’ exposure to idiosyncratic risks, it protects shareholders against the deadweight costs of severe financial distress in a way, that investors can not accomplish in the market by diversifying (Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009). Review of the linkage between CSR and risk For several decades, researchers have aimed at discovering a conclusive linkage between CSR and CFP, the literature however, remains highly fragmented (Aguinis Glavas 2012). According to Orlitsky Benjamin (2001) true economic performance manifests itself in both high financial returns and low financial risk. Among financial and non-monetary benefits, risk reduction is often mentioned as a positive outcome of engaging in CSR activities. Porter and Kramer (2006) argue that, today’s pressure, of external stakeholders to hold companies accountable for social issues, learly demonstrate the potential large financial risks for any corporation. Several scholars emphasize, that the costs of CSR can be justified by reductions in risk and costs derived from engagement in social issues (Caroll Shabana, 2010). The primary argument is that the diverse demands of stakeholders represent potential threats and risks to the viability of the firm, why it is the economic interest of firms to mitigate these threats and gain legitimacy through social involvement (Caroll Shabana, 2010; Schreck, 2011; Kurucz, Colbert Wheeler 2008). Existing literature on the CSR-risk relationship is virtually unanimously agreeing upon a negative correlation between CRS and idiosyncratic risk, where empirical results show that CSR lowers idiosyncratic risk (Spicer, 1978; Orlitsky Benjamin, 2001; Godfrey, 2005; Hoje Haejung, 2012; Caroll Shabana, 2010; Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009; Heal, 2005; Luo Bhattacharya, 2012; Oikonomou, Brooks Pavelin, 2012; Berman, Wicks, Kotha Jones, 1999; Hart, 1995; Shrivastava, 1995; Peloza, 2006). Several studies have also shown a significant negative relationship between CSR and systematic risk (non-diversifiable) (Hoje Haejung 2012; Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001; Mcguire, Sungren Scneewies, 1988; Luo Bhattacharya, 2009). CSR reduces idiosyncratic risk by reducing the probabilities of expected financial, social, or environmental crisis that could adversely influence firms’ cash flows (Hoje Haejung, 2012). Firms perceived as socially responsible may be able to increase interpersonal trust among stakeholders, build social capital, lower transaction costs, and therefore ultimately reduce uncertainty about future financial performance (Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001). Luo and Bhattacharya (2009) present the view of CSR, as helping the firm build a bulwark of defense against future losses of economic value by reducing firm specific risk and vulnerability of future cash flows. Firms with high social responsibility may have lower financial risk, since these are less sensitive to certain negative external events, like regulatory governmental intervention, undesirable publicity, probability of civil- and criminal legal proceedings or consumer boycotts, why risk reduction can be seen as a monetary benefit of CSR (Mcguire, Sungren Scneewies, 1988; Oikonomou, Brooks Pavelin, 2012; Weber, 2008; Orlitzky Benjamin, 2001; Mcguire, Sungren Scneewies, 1988). Participation in specific types of CSR, those aimed at a firm’s secondary stakeholders or society as a whole, is argued to create a form of goodwill or positive â€Å"philanthropic moral reputational capital†, which functions as an insurance-like protection, when negative events occur (Godfrey, 2005; Peloza, 2006). When business activity creates negative impact on society, stakeholders respond by sanctioning the firm (Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009). It is argued that the goodwill, derived from engagement in CSR, reduces the overall severity of the sanctions, by encouraging stakeholders to give the firm ‘the benefit of the doubt‘(Godfrey, 2005; Uzzi, 1997; Peloza, 2006; Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009). The resultant moral capital gained from social engagement has little to do with generating financial value, but the insurance-like protection contributes with preserving shareholder value and thereby financial performance (Godfrey, Merrill Hansen, 2009). Mishra and Modi (2012) fund a significant effect on idiosyncratic risk, when CSR is applied, the authors however enhanced this result by finding that, positive CSR reduces idiosyncratic risk, while negative CSR increases idiosyncratic risk. Literature has, according to Mishra and Modi (2012), often a singular focus on positive CSR, and overlooks that firms also occasionally engage in activities that qualifies as negative CSR. Luo and Bhattacharya (2009) and Porter and Kramer (2006) argue that CSR is not beneficial in all situations, but is rather advantageous in some contexts and disadvantageous in others and can even lead to additional risk. This is in line with Barnet (2007), who argues that stakeholders’ perception of firms’ CSR engagement are path-dependent (Barnet, 2007; Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Hoje Haejung, 2012). For firms with social negative impact or prior bad reputation, CSR may be perceived as â€Å"blood money† to mitigate past sins, omissions or shortcomings (Luo Bhattacharya, 2009; Barnet 2007). CSR can thereby lead to reduced idiosyncratic risk, but can also expose a firm to additional risk (Weber, 2008; Barnet, 2007). Discussion Even though the CSR-risk relationship have received much attention in the existing literature, managing risk as the predominantly basic for engaging in CSR has not received specific attention. Focus within the field is on ex-post measures of risk-related benefits, where CSR is not valued as a proactive tool to reduce idiosyncratic risk. Existing research does not seem to provide any practical guidance to managerial proactive evaluations of the risk reductions derived from CSR involvement. It further lacks a practical framework to ex-ante quantify the risk related benefits of CSR (Weber, 2008). The above review demonstrates the focus on risk, solely as valuable side-effect of engaging in CSR activities. The authors of the paper posit a research gap exists within the existing literature of CSR and risk: CSR is not considered as a proactive ex-ante risk management instrument to control and reduce firm risk. Given the risk reducing benefits of CSR, the authors suggest that investments in CSR can be used as a proactive risk management instrument to reduce idiosyncratic risk. Such an approach could strengthen the overall CSR involvement and support rational ex-ante decision-making in this area (Weber, 2008). The aim is to draw a much-need attention to the risk-reduction potential of CSR by viewing CSR investments as a proactive risk management tool, where managing risk is the main purpose for engaging in CSR. Empirical resolving the research gap and verifying the hypothesis is beyond the scope of this paper. The authors however, suggest that a potential solution is to apply real option theory as a basis for proactive CSR risk management decision-making. CSR as a real option Attributable to the aforementioned arguments, the function of CSR as a risk management tool can be considered as a real option. Regular options are based on securities (financial instruments), whereas real options are based on hedging against uncertainties in real investment projects (Mun, 2002). An analysis of the costs and benefits of CSR projects, using traditional NPV models, often leads to a rejection, as these fail to contribute to maximizing shareholder value (Friedman, 1962). This is, nevertheless, not always the right decision, as the NPV approach fails to incorporate the main advantage of real options (Husted, 2005). Compared to the traditional NPV approach, real options offer management flexibility through multiple decision-making in situations with high uncertainty. Managers have the option, but not the obligation, to engage in, modifying or end strategies, as new information becomes available (Mun, 2002). A CSR option offers the choice of deferring, abandoning, expanding, or staging an investment project (Amram Howe, 2003). Due to the theoretical and mathematical complexity of option theory, which is beyond the scope of this scientific paper, option theory will be described on an incomprehensive level. In brief option pricing is a function of five variables: the value of the underlying asset, the exercise price, time to exercise, the risk-free interest rate, and the volatility of the underlying asset (Black Scholes, 1973). The value of the underlying asset is the resources resulted from the CSR option, such as qualified employees, PR and cost avoiding’s etc. Husted, 2005). The exercise price refers to the required additional investments needed for receiving the value created by the CSR option. The timing of the exercise is an essential variable, as it has great effect on the value of CSR options. The risk-free interest rate does not play an important role in most real options (Mun, 2002). The volatility or the uncertainty of the underlying asset has a significant impact on the value of CSR options (Mun, 2002). The variance of the expected value can both be higher or lower than the expected return. Black and Scholes is the most widely used regular option pricing model, however, also one of the most complicated models (Mun, 2002). A Binomial lattice approach is applied in most real option pricing, as it provides a more transparent and intuitive appeal compared with Black and Scholes’ theoretical and mathematical approach (Mun, 2002). However, since the aim is solely to clarify the value of real options in a CSR context, the choice of approach is of less relevance. Real options provide an important framework for firms to manage risk by reducing the risk of future investments, and can thus be an essential tool in corporate risk management (Husted, 2005). Finally, a real CSR option explicitly includes a time dimension. This ex-ante perspective is clearly different from the focus on risk in most CSR-risk research, which is ex post in nature. CSR as a risk management instrument – The Toyota example A few decades ago, car manufacturers did not focus so intensively on a green profiling as they do today. The increased oil prices in 1973 and 1979 were influential for the entry of Japanese car manufacturers in USA, who were producing smaller and more gas efficient cars (Andrews, Simon, Tian Zhao, 2011). The gas efficient cars of Japanese manufactures were causative to the car industry as a whole subsequently invested massively in green technology projects. These investments have met consumers’ need and have generated positive branding values. Toyota’s Prius has reached â€Å"cult status†, as it is one of the most gas efficient and green cars on the market. However, more interestingly is the security, that the green profile of the Prius has offered Toyota, which includes protection against the bad publicity of car manufacturers’ contribution to pollution and factors such as Middle Eastern conflicts that influence oil prices and hence sales of cars. At first glance, it appears as Toyota has been skilled at forecasting future trends and meeting customer’s needs without using CSR as management instrument. As the following example however illustrates, Toyota’s management could have benefitted from considering investments in CSR as real options to control idiosyncratic risk and thereby preserve CFP. In 2009 repeated accidents occurred, which were accused to be caused by flaws in floor mats and accelerator pedals in Toyota’s vehicles. This resulted in a recall of more than 5 million vehicles, alone in the North American market (Andrews, Simon, Tian Zhao, 2011). Before a product is recalled, companies have to make severe considerations. A product-recall can have great financial impact in terms of losses in brand value, consumer goodwill, decreasing sales and a negative effect on stock prices (Kumara Schmitza, 2011), which in this case is the value of the underlying asset of the CSR option. The decision to recall the cars is the price of the option. The recall option could have generated strategic flexibility, which however, meanwhile was eliminated, as Toyota’s management failed to exercise the option, before it was too late. The leisurely recall decision resulted in losses in brand value, consumer goodwill, decreased stock price, lower sales, a fine of $16 million and more than 130 potential class-action lawsuits (Andrews, Simon, Tian Zhao, 2011). The negative outcome of the late recall is considered as high volatility of the underlying asset. A faster recalling could have had a avoiding, a limited or opposite effect on product brand, consumer goodwill and the massive media coverage (Husted, 2005). Provided that Toyota’s management had viewed the recall decision as a valuable option rather than severe costs, strategic flexibility could have been obtained, why the negative outcome may have been avoided. A faster exercise of the recall option might have resulted in goodwill or trust, which could have been exploited by Toyota to limit the negative publicity caused by the repeated accidents. Toyota however, failed to exercise the recall option in acute time, why the result was lost flexibility to respond to the unexpected event of the accidents. The value of the real option foregone by Toyota was a function of inter alia lost sales, brand value and reputation. Toyota’s management failed to exploit the advantages of CSR as a risk management tool.

Effects of Discrimination in the Workplace

Effects of Discrimination in the Workplace Abstract: The current study aims at investigate the discrimination aspects and how it is affect in The work place, discrimination is a major problem, employees should be protected against it, and there is wide range of cases of discrimination around the world. The reason of writing this research is to aware the people about the discrimination and to show how its illegal to treat workers differently no matter what they should treated in the same way and fairly. Introduction: Research Importance: The importance of this subject is to explore the major effect of the discrimination on the females and elderly employees, in the work force women has 40% of the population in working environment and if those women were uncomfortable and decided to quit their jobs to avoid discomfort and the consequences of the gender discrimination that will affect the productivity in the work place which will lead to effect the economy too , the same case to the elderly employee by letting them go and cut them of early it will lead to job dissatisfaction and to lose their experience which is a huge asset to any company to learn from any previous experience. Research Question : The purpose of this literature is to explore the aspects of the discrimination in the work place? And in this literature we will explore these aspects and see the effect of each on the workers. This paper will focus on these cases and take brief information about the types of discrimination in the work place which is many. Elementary Definition : To proceed in this paper the first step is define the Work place discrimination: which is a behavior the influence decisions on employment matters and interfering with job performance or creating a hostile, intimating work environment. Discrimination occurs if there was a difference made based on one of the following grounds: race, color, gender, place of origin, religion, material status, physical disability, age. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood(universal declaration of Human Rights Article 1, 2). From this Quote it will lead to understand that everyone has the right to treated equally and fairly. So it is illegal to discriminate against employees in any aspect including: hiring lay off, recall, transfer, promotion, assignment, benefits, pay retirement plane, recruitment, harassment on any base. Research Problem And Gap : Through reviewing the literature review there was a significant lack concerning the articles, it didnt contain any cases happened in the Arab countries, there were no case of age and gender discrimination in the same article combining together and all the case was on public sector and finally most of gender discrimination cases focused on the women cases not the men. Research Structure : As for the organization of the paper the research will start with research question: What are the discrimination aspects in the work place in terms of gender and age? Exploring discrimination which include the types of discrimination which are: Age, Gender, This section followed by exploring the problems and the cases of the discrimination in the work environment and the last two sections are the methodology and the conclusion. Literature review: In order to know the aspects in this paper its important to know two things, first what the discrimination mean, Discrimination is: Unfair treatment because of race, sex (male, female), color (white, black), the person back ground, place of origin, ethnic origin, marital status (single, married), same sex partner status, sexual orientation, age, disability, citizenship, family status or religion. Second the work place, the workplace is any place where employees deal with other employees, volunteers and trustees and other users perform work or work-related duties or functions. Schools and school-related activities I.S 1 (The Toronto Catholic District HR , (2007), issued in May). The following literature review provides insights and key findings of available literature relating to work place and the two different types of discrimination, age discrimination, gender or sex discrimination. According to the EEOC (The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) , the total number of discrimination complaints filed recently have fallen back to26,300 in the year ended September 1996 from 31,700 in 1993, after increasing 13% between 2000and 2004 (Lee 2005: 4). Sexual harassment complaints alone soared to 10,532 filings in 1992, from 6,883 in 2000 (Roberts 2003: 4). Age discrimination law suits resulted in the high percentage during 1988, through2004. Sex discrimination start to get a high percentage of law suits resulted in the highest aggregate jury awards. Age discrimination: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) equal opportunities were everyone is treated equally. Age discrimination is a factor of equal opportunities where older people are not allowed to work in certain jobs because they are too old. What is age discrimination in employment? Simply stated, it is the act of deliberately discriminating against a person based solely on his or her age. It includes refusing to hire or promote older workers, coursing them to retire, targeting them when layoffs occur, cutting back, or restricting their employee benefits. It also includes limiting their training opportunities, job responsibilities, and duties. This deliberate discrimination may be blatant or subtle, but in either case, it is against the law (Shen and Kleiner 2001: 25). The effect of the Age discrimination against older workers, it may result that some workers get an early retirement because of their age or to reserve that place to a younger workers so the main reason of The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) protects people age 40 and over from employment discrimination based on age because worker should be able to keep their job based on their ability, not their age The law says that an employer may not fire, refuse to hire, or treat you differently than other employees because of your age (Mong, Byron and Tester 2007: 317). According to the Wall St. Journal, in1999, there were age discrimination suit filed by seven former security guards against Coors. Because there were all over the age 40 and Coors laid them off and they replaced them with younger employees. The angry employees filed the suit only after learning that the average age of their replacement was 25. (Kapur and Kleiner; Coors 2000: 4). For example, in 1991 the central information department director in New York city, Joyce Stratton , the company had to let her go because of her age 61 she filed under age discrimination , she sued the company and won 1$ million dollar as pay pack and damage (Engle man and Kleiner 2005: 4) . In another case, Chicago Studies professor, sued the University of California for age bias. The well- known historian was 59 when he applied for a high faculty position at UC Santa Barbara, Which has the UC systems only fully operating Department of Chicano Studies. He sued the university system the following year, in 1991, claiming he was denied the job because of discrimination against his race, politics (Engle man and Kleiner 2005: 3). In the study, Fair Employment Council ( FEC) sent two resumes in job-related qualifications but different in the characteristic in this case, age, to 775 selected large firms and employment agencies. One resume was for a person 57 years of age and the other for a 32 year old Seventy-nine companies they responded that the position was available 32 companies were interested in the both applicant and 34 companies were interested in younger applicant and 13 companies preferred the older applicant . The net difference between the treatments of the two types of applicants was 26.6% (Shen and Kleiner 2001: 25). One of the reasons that could lead to age discrimination is stereotype it based on un faire treatment and un equal opportunity .A careful review of history shows us the many ways of older have been discriminated against their experience and simply because of their age for example: ageist stereotypes finds the more than 80 percent of Americans were discriminated and more than 60 years old employees have been insulted by jokes ,disrespect , and unfair treatment study revealed that the treatment to the older workers were the least valued by employers (Mong, Byron and Tester 2007: 314). The reason for this discrimination is the stereotype, the older workers are less responsive to the work place changes and they are inflexible and slow (e.g. crew 2004 shah and kleiner 2005 swift 2006). And for older worker they (managers) tend to give them a higher job commitment and lower rate than they do to the younger workers (Mueller, et. al, 2001, 315). Another study published by Harvard business review made by Rosen and Jerne .They want to evaluate the role of the management in the hiring process so they divided the applicant to two groups the first group evaluated by a young manger and the second by older manager and they asked the mangers to make judgment about the incident in which the worker was older and the younger, the manger decision was very different for older and the younger works for the same incident there decision was for the older workers, they were less motivated ,less creative , and less to capable to handle stressful situation in summary the older was less favored to continue in their career and to get promoted ( Dennis and Thomas 2007:86) . The second reason that may cause age discrimination is Lay off and cutting from their wages. Replacing older workers with younger is technique used by the managers to cost saving and decreasing wages and the payouts and the promotions, training opportunities can be held for younger workers who are viewed as more cheaper in the long term investment than the older (Mong, Byron and Tester 2007: 315).According to the economic policy institute workers over 40 years old they have much less chance to get promoted and trained comparing with the younger workers (sterns and McDaniel 2000:87). A recent survey done by experience worker serve as an endorsement of the importance of training and they want to motive the older people to enter the work field but more than half of the survey respondents that they believe the age discrimination still exists in the work place and one of the third of the majority thinks that that older people cannot learn a new skills (T+D of american socitey for traning and development issued march 2008 page 17) .Stereotypes have a huge impact on discrimination behaviors, it has been part of serial of social closure and dissatisfaction In another example: in 1994 Tim Jones, 75 years old he was one of the employees in IBM corporation Tim was one of 900 casualties and he was under the potential layoffs and the company give him a choice to accept payout offer or the lower paying job (Dennis and Thomas 2007:84) . Theres a positive and negative perceptions about older workers, the positive is that the older works are valued for their experience and their knowledge and their commitment and loyalty and the ability o are calm in crisis and respect the authority. And the negative is the older people are inflexible, UN willing to adapt with the new technology and having some physical limitation (Britton and TTiomas 2002; Haefiier 2003; Rosen and Jerdee2000:87). Gender or sex discrimination: Its unlawful for an employer to treat you differently from others based on your sex, because of your marital status. The discrimination can be direct or indirect, deliberate or accidental. One of the ways of direct discrimination is behaving differently or act funny toward you and that only If someone is deliberately treat you differently at work because of their sex, marital status or gender, it is consider as unlawful act , and the employer should stop the discrimination, (Marker 2005; Chien and Kleiner, 2000, 1) e.g. ( women and men at the same the job but men gets more money or payment and the same as promoting someone because they are single instead of an equally qualified person, or sacking a woman because she says she is pregnant or might start a family). Indirect discrimination putting you at a disadvantage because of certain working practices or rules e.g. (setting a minimum height, which might discriminate against most women or an employers refusal to recruit part-time workers without good reason), (Phan and Kleiner 2005:41). One of the causes of direct discrimination is disparate impact, a careful review of history shows us the many ways women have been discriminated against and often overlooked simply because of their gender. Such examples include: Aristotles (384 – 22 B.C.) belief that women were unintelligent. Based on study made by Adam wine .The statistical evidence shows that theres a gap is caused by the gender discrimination the statistics show that the gap between the age and the wage ratio is higher than the income ratio for many reasons one of them is women work fewer hours than men and the gap between the singles are smaller than between the married , the gaps increase based on the experience and thats because women have less experience and women tend to leave their work because the lack of achievement and pay raise. And heres the statistics Men dominate 310 occupational fields, while the women dominate 50 fields; women earn about $4000 per year less than men even if the men and women are employed in the same occupation. Published by (public personnel management data on September 22 2005, 6). Based on another study made by Chien and Kleiner showed that 1000 largest companies in U.S among the 4000 people shown as the highest paid officer or director only 19 were women and that because women viewed as less suitable for upper management roles and when women take executive positions the chance of failure is high and predictable, and those expectation of failure effect how women evaluated. (Chien and Kleiner 2000: 3). Another way for direct discrimination is UN equal pay act, Studies have found that women are unfairly treated and face barriers regarding progress and promotion, even in fields in which they have reached a good accomplishment .For example based on study done by Ash, Carr Large cooperation firms in U.S women get less paid than men for similar work. Such discrimination is not unique to the world of high finance; things seem to be much worse in medicine. In June 2004, the U.S. Census Bureau released an analysis of the earnings of full-time workers that reported that female physicians wages averaged 63 cents for every dollar earned by their male colleagues. (Annals internal medicine, issued 3rd of august, 2004, 239). The Census Bureau report was limited in that it did not examine factors, such as specialty, practice setting, seniority, and performance Ash, Carr, and colleagues analyzed data from a national survey of academic physicians and reported that women earned less than their male colleagues, even after accounting for specialty, hours worked, and many other measures of productivity and achievement. In addition, they found that women were less likely than men to reach the highest academic ranks. On other hand men do not face that problem and there is a salary gap between men and women for example women still have a lower compensation than men at the same academic rank. Another example (china youth daily news paper) they mentioned that many positions reserved for males only and for female they have to accept unfair terms and not being Able to have a children for many years and the reason that the women are left behind is because their special physical and physiological features. (Beijing 2008: 4). This case one of the EEOC.v cases about UN equal pay act happened in a bank the bank was paying different salary to male and female workers in three different jobs First: man teller was paid more than any female teller even though the female was more experienced, second: male operator was paid more than any women who performed the same job, third: the male installment loan officer was hired of salary higher than any female .The bank argued in the first job that he was a management trainee but they found there was no real training program, in the second job the bank claimed that the female was slower in the typing and less accurate than the male but they proof that she was faster and more accurate than the male, in the third job the claimed that the raise Was given to the women after the EEOC investigation began but the court didnt believe it. (Bhasker and Kleiner 2002: 75). This presented case shows that the un equal pay act can lead to a un friendly environment this case is about women was hired by Pizza Hut as a unit manager; she started out in a management Training program with a male trainee who was hired at the same time. Both were paid equally for the duration of the program but when it ended, the male manager received a much higher raise than female. The next round of raises did not even things out; the male manager still made more, despite the fact that the female was running one of the most profitable Pizza Huts. She filed a charge of discrimination with the EEOC. When the EEOC could not re solve the problem, she sued the company (Bhasker and Kleiner 2002: 74). Harassment is the most common way that could be use as a gender or sex discrimination and the definition of sexual harassment according to the U.S (EEOC): behaving in an offensive manner, or encouraging or allowing other people to do so and that could be either physically or verbally and it will lead to influencing the individual work place environment (for example, making sexual remarks or gestures, allowing displays or Distribution of sexually explicit material, or giving someone a potentially offensive nickname because of their gender). (Grochin and Kleiner 2005 :17). The most sexual harassment cases in the U.S are against black women based on study done by (information times issued October 2007). they discovered the only 2.8 percent of female university graduate dont face a gender discrimination in the labor market while 52.8 percent said the gender discrimination is a huge a problem and they face it every day for example many posts at job fairs are not open to female applicant (Beaton et al, platania 2003:291). This appears to be the case in Australia, konrad and Hartmann (2001) examined survey indicate that women are more likely to believe that they were discriminated in the academic hiring and promotions more that men and that one of the reasons to make the women in such low place by made them to believe . Sexual harassment is a serious concern for women in the work field during a 2003 survey, respondents reported: Apart from gender discrimination a lot of women have to combat sexual and racial discrimination constantly to survive in college and work places. In order to overcome discrimination, many women scientists report having to work harder and be more successful than men in order to succeed; professors report training their female students to think in these terms as well (Etzkowitz and Kemelgor 2004 : 87). Sexual harassment is a serious concern for women in the sciences. During a 2003 survey, respondents reported46% were sexually harassed; 55% handled this harassment themselves; 40% told their harasser to stop; 7% were forced to quit working; 3% transferred within the company; 2% filed legal action; 18% experienced a combination of all the situations (Boiarsky et. al 2003: 213). Sexual harassment can lead to Hostile environment and that Occurs when an employee is unwelcome sexual conductor materials when the conductor materials are sufficiently strict and firm as to create a hostile, intimidating, or offensive work environment(Grochin and Kleiner 2005:19). This case present how the women are suffering from disparate treatment and from the Stereotyping, Women struggle with the stereotype that having a family translates into a lack of commitment to career and job, Motherhood presents a set of expectations; there is a need to balance family and life many women accept part-time work while others prefer flexible scheduling as a condition of full time employment (Beasley, Lomo and Seubert 2001: 76). Often, balancing between work and family results that woman will take breaks from their employment track which leads to less opportunity. Another stereotype based on case issued in Canada, gender discrimination against male doctors and trainees, men with deep religions of certain communities force their wives to be examined by a female obstetrician-gynecologist and refused to be exposed to men this issue concern to medical resident who may not get their medical experience they because of patient demand (Canadian Medical Association 2008: 179). Methodology : Research Statement: What are the discrimination aspects in the work place in terms of gender and age? Meaning to explore each aspect and its effect on the employees in Egypt and how to react in different situation Research Tool : The type of this methodology is quantitative and the reason of choosing quantitative is because it refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships, meaning the problem already exist and in order to contain it the perfect kind is quantitative, the tool to answer the research question is questionnaire. And the shape of the questionnaire was based on the article review and the internet (and its attached in the appendix ). The place will be in Cairo and to evaluate the rate or the level of the discrimination against the women and elderly employees. The reason that we choose Cairo is because theres a significant increase in the number of discrimination cases in Cairo for example between 2000 and 2008 the number of discrimination cases increased by 27% Research design: the sample is non probability, convince sample because it will allow choosing the individuals that are easiest to reach or sampling that is done easy. And Convenience sampling does not represent the entire population so it is considered bias, therefore the sample is will be relative weight 80 females and 60 males, from different courses in private university in Cairo, aged 18 to 25 years undergraduate and graduate students, fresh graduate TAS. participants volunteered to participate in the questionnaire and did not receive any reward for their participation, the reason selecting under graduate student is because most the student work a part time to finish their internship and to get the experience so their opinions will be supported and they face a lot of challenge in the school and in their work so their opinions will be accredited. Furthermore there were noticeable result that most the people that been asking about the discrimination in their work place they refused and some hesitated to give the frank answer worrying about their boss reaction or their co-workers too , in addition student were more willing to give their frank answers and their opinion without any worries. Procedure: first the mailing list which will be available from HR department of the private college , after that will address the questionnaire to fresh graduate TAs and fourth year student from different faculties, we will wait one week to collect the responds from the mails and if that was not enough there will be a another round of mails and we will wait for the respond and if that was not efficient we will need to distribute the questionnaire in class and wait for the data collection the total time that it took to design the survey is one week and for distribute the survey among the student in (GUC) is one week , to analyze the result it took two weeks to analysis the survey and three weeks to get the result. Analysis: SPSS ( statistical package of social since ) program will be used in this study to order to know the appropriate way to analysis the result of the questionnaire and theres two ways to approach that, the first is descriptive statistics and the second is frequency and percentage. The student litter :T-test will be used to answer the research question through SPSS descriptive statistic will be conduct including the major of frequency and probability the major of center tendency contain : mean , mode , median, variance, slandered deviation . Conclusion: The main purpose of the present research was to analysis and to explore the types of the discrimination and to show the effect of each one on the people life First the Age discrimination, the effect of the Age discrimination against older workers, it could result that some workers get an early retirement because of their age or to reserve that place to a younger workers. And the gender or sex discrimination could affect the employees in many different way especially the harassments because is the most common way that could be use as a gender or sex discrimination and its very offensive manner, it could lead to encourage or allow other people to do so and that could be physically or verbally and it influence the individual work place. And to sum up the whole research by seeing the effect of each type and how people react to each type. Everyone should have the right to treated right and fairly and with respect regardless the age or the gender or the home town we all human and we all seeking for success and we should achieve it in healthy environment and in fair opportunities and because of these discrimination the government should concentrate on the consequences and put a strict punishment for any one not obey these rules. References: Barry m. Goldman. (2001). Toward an understanding of employment discrimination claiming: an integration of organizational justice and social information processing theories, vol .54, no 5, pp. 361-386. Bernstein, a. (2004, June 14). Womens pay: Why the gap remains a chasm. Business Week, (3887), 58-59. Retrieved December 15, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=truedb=aphAN=13374148site=eh ost-live Canadian Medical Association or its licensors (CMAJ) (2008). Gender discrimination: vol.179, No (6), 521-522. Chine .E, Kleiner.H. (1999). SEX DIS CRIMI NA TION IN HIR ING: Equal Opportunities International, vol. 5, No (6), 32-36 CYNTHIA J.;. ZUKEWICH,N, (2003). The Gender of Precarious Employment in Canada, vol.58, No (3), 454-482. Dennis.N, Thomas.K (2007). Ageism in the Workplace, vol.21, No (9), 84-89. Exten,J. (2005),Sexual advances . Cabinet Maker, 25- November. Eddy S. Willi H.. (2007). Are Men Always Picked Over Women? The Effects of Employment Equity, vol.76,177–187. Erbschloe,M . (2008), Gender Management. Association. Retrieved on 18-January 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier Gene .G, Kleiner .H. (2001). Age Discrimination in Hiring: Equal Opportunities International, vol. 20, No (8), 25-32. HAKIM ,C, (2006). Women, careers, and work-life preferences, vol.34, No (3),280–291. Julius, E.; Chamovitz Y, (2003). Equally unequal: Gender discrimination in the workplace among adults with mental retardation, vol.20, No (3), 205–213. Kapur .A, Kleiner .H. (2000). DISCRIMINATION INTHEWORKPLACE OFTHEBEERINDUSTRY, vol. 19, No (6), 371-380. Robert J. B, Feather (2007). GENDER, DISCRIMINATION BELIEFS, GROUP-BASED GUILT, AND RESPONSES TO AFFIRMATIVE ACTION FOR AUSTRALIAN WOMEN. Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol.31 No (4), 290-304 RÉAUME ,D, (2005). Comparing Theories of Sex Discrimination: The Role of Comparison, vol.25, No (3), 547–564. Theobald,S. (2006), Taking the pulse of discrimination. Associations Now, May. The Toronto Catholic District HR , Retrieved on 2-May 2007 from http://www.tcdsb.org/trustees/Agendas/HR,%202007-05-02/HR,%202007-05-02.html Vincent, J.; Tester.G, (2007). Age Discrimination, Social Closure and Employment, vol.86, No (1), 314-332. Roscigno.V ; Tester,G , (2007). Age Discrimination, Social Closure and Employment, vol.86, No (1), 314-333. LI LI. (2007),Gender discrimination in the labor market. BEUING REVIKW, 22- November. Effects of Discrimination in the Workplace Effects of Discrimination in the Workplace Abstract: The current study aims at investigate the discrimination aspects and how it is affect in The work place, discrimination is a major problem, employees should be protected against it, and there is wide range of cases of discrimination around the world. The reason of writing this research is to aware the people about the discrimination and to show how its illegal to treat workers differently no matter what they should treated in the same way and fairly. Introduction: Research Importance: The importance of this subject is to explore the major effect of the discrimination on the females and elderly employees, in the work force women has 40% of the population in working environment and if those women were uncomfortable and decided to quit their jobs to avoid discomfort and the consequences of the gender discrimination that will affect the productivity in the work place which will lead to effect the economy too , the same case to the elderly employee by letting them go and cut them of early it will lead to job dissatisfaction and to lose their experience which is a huge asset to any company to learn from any previous experience. Research Question : The purpose of this literature is to explore the aspects of the discrimination in the work place? And in this literature we will explore these aspects and see the effect of each on the workers. This paper will focus on these cases and take brief information about the types of discrimination in the work place which is many. Elementary Definition : To proceed in this paper the first step is define the Work place discrimination: which is a behavior the influence decisions on employment matters and interfering with job performance or creating a hostile, intimating work environment. Discrimination occurs if there was a difference made based on one of the following grounds: race, color, gender, place of origin, religion, material status, physical disability, age. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood(universal declaration of Human Rights Article 1, 2). From this Quote it will lead to understand that everyone has the right to treated equally and fairly. So it is illegal to discriminate against employees in any aspect including: hiring lay off, recall, transfer, promotion, assignment, benefits, pay retirement plane, recruitment, harassment on any base. Research Problem And Gap : Through reviewing the literature review there was a significant lack concerning the articles, it didnt contain any cases happened in the Arab countries, there were no case of age and gender discrimination in the same article combining together and all the case was on public sector and finally most of gender discrimination cases focused on the women cases not the men. Research Structure : As for the organization of the paper the research will start with research question: What are the discrimination aspects in the work place in terms of gender and age? Exploring discrimination which include the types of discrimination which are: Age, Gender, This section followed by exploring the problems and the cases of the discrimination in the work environment and the last two sections are the methodology and the conclusion. Literature review: In order to know the aspects in this paper its important to know two things, first what the discrimination mean, Discrimination is: Unfair treatment because of race, sex (male, female), color (white, black), the person back ground, place of origin, ethnic origin, marital status (single, married), same sex partner status, sexual orientation, age, disability, citizenship, family status or religion. Second the work place, the workplace is any place where employees deal with other employees, volunteers and trustees and other users perform work or work-related duties or functions. Schools and school-related activities I.S 1 (The Toronto Catholic District HR , (2007), issued in May). The following literature review provides insights and key findings of available literature relating to work place and the two different types of discrimination, age discrimination, gender or sex discrimination. According to the EEOC (The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) , the total number of discrimination complaints filed recently have fallen back to26,300 in the year ended September 1996 from 31,700 in 1993, after increasing 13% between 2000and 2004 (Lee 2005: 4). Sexual harassment complaints alone soared to 10,532 filings in 1992, from 6,883 in 2000 (Roberts 2003: 4). Age discrimination law suits resulted in the high percentage during 1988, through2004. Sex discrimination start to get a high percentage of law suits resulted in the highest aggregate jury awards. Age discrimination: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) equal opportunities were everyone is treated equally. Age discrimination is a factor of equal opportunities where older people are not allowed to work in certain jobs because they are too old. What is age discrimination in employment? Simply stated, it is the act of deliberately discriminating against a person based solely on his or her age. It includes refusing to hire or promote older workers, coursing them to retire, targeting them when layoffs occur, cutting back, or restricting their employee benefits. It also includes limiting their training opportunities, job responsibilities, and duties. This deliberate discrimination may be blatant or subtle, but in either case, it is against the law (Shen and Kleiner 2001: 25). The effect of the Age discrimination against older workers, it may result that some workers get an early retirement because of their age or to reserve that place to a younger workers so the main reason of The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) protects people age 40 and over from employment discrimination based on age because worker should be able to keep their job based on their ability, not their age The law says that an employer may not fire, refuse to hire, or treat you differently than other employees because of your age (Mong, Byron and Tester 2007: 317). According to the Wall St. Journal, in1999, there were age discrimination suit filed by seven former security guards against Coors. Because there were all over the age 40 and Coors laid them off and they replaced them with younger employees. The angry employees filed the suit only after learning that the average age of their replacement was 25. (Kapur and Kleiner; Coors 2000: 4). For example, in 1991 the central information department director in New York city, Joyce Stratton , the company had to let her go because of her age 61 she filed under age discrimination , she sued the company and won 1$ million dollar as pay pack and damage (Engle man and Kleiner 2005: 4) . In another case, Chicago Studies professor, sued the University of California for age bias. The well- known historian was 59 when he applied for a high faculty position at UC Santa Barbara, Which has the UC systems only fully operating Department of Chicano Studies. He sued the university system the following year, in 1991, claiming he was denied the job because of discrimination against his race, politics (Engle man and Kleiner 2005: 3). In the study, Fair Employment Council ( FEC) sent two resumes in job-related qualifications but different in the characteristic in this case, age, to 775 selected large firms and employment agencies. One resume was for a person 57 years of age and the other for a 32 year old Seventy-nine companies they responded that the position was available 32 companies were interested in the both applicant and 34 companies were interested in younger applicant and 13 companies preferred the older applicant . The net difference between the treatments of the two types of applicants was 26.6% (Shen and Kleiner 2001: 25). One of the reasons that could lead to age discrimination is stereotype it based on un faire treatment and un equal opportunity .A careful review of history shows us the many ways of older have been discriminated against their experience and simply because of their age for example: ageist stereotypes finds the more than 80 percent of Americans were discriminated and more than 60 years old employees have been insulted by jokes ,disrespect , and unfair treatment study revealed that the treatment to the older workers were the least valued by employers (Mong, Byron and Tester 2007: 314). The reason for this discrimination is the stereotype, the older workers are less responsive to the work place changes and they are inflexible and slow (e.g. crew 2004 shah and kleiner 2005 swift 2006). And for older worker they (managers) tend to give them a higher job commitment and lower rate than they do to the younger workers (Mueller, et. al, 2001, 315). Another study published by Harvard business review made by Rosen and Jerne .They want to evaluate the role of the management in the hiring process so they divided the applicant to two groups the first group evaluated by a young manger and the second by older manager and they asked the mangers to make judgment about the incident in which the worker was older and the younger, the manger decision was very different for older and the younger works for the same incident there decision was for the older workers, they were less motivated ,less creative , and less to capable to handle stressful situation in summary the older was less favored to continue in their career and to get promoted ( Dennis and Thomas 2007:86) . The second reason that may cause age discrimination is Lay off and cutting from their wages. Replacing older workers with younger is technique used by the managers to cost saving and decreasing wages and the payouts and the promotions, training opportunities can be held for younger workers who are viewed as more cheaper in the long term investment than the older (Mong, Byron and Tester 2007: 315).According to the economic policy institute workers over 40 years old they have much less chance to get promoted and trained comparing with the younger workers (sterns and McDaniel 2000:87). A recent survey done by experience worker serve as an endorsement of the importance of training and they want to motive the older people to enter the work field but more than half of the survey respondents that they believe the age discrimination still exists in the work place and one of the third of the majority thinks that that older people cannot learn a new skills (T+D of american socitey for traning and development issued march 2008 page 17) .Stereotypes have a huge impact on discrimination behaviors, it has been part of serial of social closure and dissatisfaction In another example: in 1994 Tim Jones, 75 years old he was one of the employees in IBM corporation Tim was one of 900 casualties and he was under the potential layoffs and the company give him a choice to accept payout offer or the lower paying job (Dennis and Thomas 2007:84) . Theres a positive and negative perceptions about older workers, the positive is that the older works are valued for their experience and their knowledge and their commitment and loyalty and the ability o are calm in crisis and respect the authority. And the negative is the older people are inflexible, UN willing to adapt with the new technology and having some physical limitation (Britton and TTiomas 2002; Haefiier 2003; Rosen and Jerdee2000:87). Gender or sex discrimination: Its unlawful for an employer to treat you differently from others based on your sex, because of your marital status. The discrimination can be direct or indirect, deliberate or accidental. One of the ways of direct discrimination is behaving differently or act funny toward you and that only If someone is deliberately treat you differently at work because of their sex, marital status or gender, it is consider as unlawful act , and the employer should stop the discrimination, (Marker 2005; Chien and Kleiner, 2000, 1) e.g. ( women and men at the same the job but men gets more money or payment and the same as promoting someone because they are single instead of an equally qualified person, or sacking a woman because she says she is pregnant or might start a family). Indirect discrimination putting you at a disadvantage because of certain working practices or rules e.g. (setting a minimum height, which might discriminate against most women or an employers refusal to recruit part-time workers without good reason), (Phan and Kleiner 2005:41). One of the causes of direct discrimination is disparate impact, a careful review of history shows us the many ways women have been discriminated against and often overlooked simply because of their gender. Such examples include: Aristotles (384 – 22 B.C.) belief that women were unintelligent. Based on study made by Adam wine .The statistical evidence shows that theres a gap is caused by the gender discrimination the statistics show that the gap between the age and the wage ratio is higher than the income ratio for many reasons one of them is women work fewer hours than men and the gap between the singles are smaller than between the married , the gaps increase based on the experience and thats because women have less experience and women tend to leave their work because the lack of achievement and pay raise. And heres the statistics Men dominate 310 occupational fields, while the women dominate 50 fields; women earn about $4000 per year less than men even if the men and women are employed in the same occupation. Published by (public personnel management data on September 22 2005, 6). Based on another study made by Chien and Kleiner showed that 1000 largest companies in U.S among the 4000 people shown as the highest paid officer or director only 19 were women and that because women viewed as less suitable for upper management roles and when women take executive positions the chance of failure is high and predictable, and those expectation of failure effect how women evaluated. (Chien and Kleiner 2000: 3). Another way for direct discrimination is UN equal pay act, Studies have found that women are unfairly treated and face barriers regarding progress and promotion, even in fields in which they have reached a good accomplishment .For example based on study done by Ash, Carr Large cooperation firms in U.S women get less paid than men for similar work. Such discrimination is not unique to the world of high finance; things seem to be much worse in medicine. In June 2004, the U.S. Census Bureau released an analysis of the earnings of full-time workers that reported that female physicians wages averaged 63 cents for every dollar earned by their male colleagues. (Annals internal medicine, issued 3rd of august, 2004, 239). The Census Bureau report was limited in that it did not examine factors, such as specialty, practice setting, seniority, and performance Ash, Carr, and colleagues analyzed data from a national survey of academic physicians and reported that women earned less than their male colleagues, even after accounting for specialty, hours worked, and many other measures of productivity and achievement. In addition, they found that women were less likely than men to reach the highest academic ranks. On other hand men do not face that problem and there is a salary gap between men and women for example women still have a lower compensation than men at the same academic rank. Another example (china youth daily news paper) they mentioned that many positions reserved for males only and for female they have to accept unfair terms and not being Able to have a children for many years and the reason that the women are left behind is because their special physical and physiological features. (Beijing 2008: 4). This case one of the EEOC.v cases about UN equal pay act happened in a bank the bank was paying different salary to male and female workers in three different jobs First: man teller was paid more than any female teller even though the female was more experienced, second: male operator was paid more than any women who performed the same job, third: the male installment loan officer was hired of salary higher than any female .The bank argued in the first job that he was a management trainee but they found there was no real training program, in the second job the bank claimed that the female was slower in the typing and less accurate than the male but they proof that she was faster and more accurate than the male, in the third job the claimed that the raise Was given to the women after the EEOC investigation began but the court didnt believe it. (Bhasker and Kleiner 2002: 75). This presented case shows that the un equal pay act can lead to a un friendly environment this case is about women was hired by Pizza Hut as a unit manager; she started out in a management Training program with a male trainee who was hired at the same time. Both were paid equally for the duration of the program but when it ended, the male manager received a much higher raise than female. The next round of raises did not even things out; the male manager still made more, despite the fact that the female was running one of the most profitable Pizza Huts. She filed a charge of discrimination with the EEOC. When the EEOC could not re solve the problem, she sued the company (Bhasker and Kleiner 2002: 74). Harassment is the most common way that could be use as a gender or sex discrimination and the definition of sexual harassment according to the U.S (EEOC): behaving in an offensive manner, or encouraging or allowing other people to do so and that could be either physically or verbally and it will lead to influencing the individual work place environment (for example, making sexual remarks or gestures, allowing displays or Distribution of sexually explicit material, or giving someone a potentially offensive nickname because of their gender). (Grochin and Kleiner 2005 :17). The most sexual harassment cases in the U.S are against black women based on study done by (information times issued October 2007). they discovered the only 2.8 percent of female university graduate dont face a gender discrimination in the labor market while 52.8 percent said the gender discrimination is a huge a problem and they face it every day for example many posts at job fairs are not open to female applicant (Beaton et al, platania 2003:291). This appears to be the case in Australia, konrad and Hartmann (2001) examined survey indicate that women are more likely to believe that they were discriminated in the academic hiring and promotions more that men and that one of the reasons to make the women in such low place by made them to believe . Sexual harassment is a serious concern for women in the work field during a 2003 survey, respondents reported: Apart from gender discrimination a lot of women have to combat sexual and racial discrimination constantly to survive in college and work places. In order to overcome discrimination, many women scientists report having to work harder and be more successful than men in order to succeed; professors report training their female students to think in these terms as well (Etzkowitz and Kemelgor 2004 : 87). Sexual harassment is a serious concern for women in the sciences. During a 2003 survey, respondents reported46% were sexually harassed; 55% handled this harassment themselves; 40% told their harasser to stop; 7% were forced to quit working; 3% transferred within the company; 2% filed legal action; 18% experienced a combination of all the situations (Boiarsky et. al 2003: 213). Sexual harassment can lead to Hostile environment and that Occurs when an employee is unwelcome sexual conductor materials when the conductor materials are sufficiently strict and firm as to create a hostile, intimidating, or offensive work environment(Grochin and Kleiner 2005:19). This case present how the women are suffering from disparate treatment and from the Stereotyping, Women struggle with the stereotype that having a family translates into a lack of commitment to career and job, Motherhood presents a set of expectations; there is a need to balance family and life many women accept part-time work while others prefer flexible scheduling as a condition of full time employment (Beasley, Lomo and Seubert 2001: 76). Often, balancing between work and family results that woman will take breaks from their employment track which leads to less opportunity. Another stereotype based on case issued in Canada, gender discrimination against male doctors and trainees, men with deep religions of certain communities force their wives to be examined by a female obstetrician-gynecologist and refused to be exposed to men this issue concern to medical resident who may not get their medical experience they because of patient demand (Canadian Medical Association 2008: 179). Methodology : Research Statement: What are the discrimination aspects in the work place in terms of gender and age? Meaning to explore each aspect and its effect on the employees in Egypt and how to react in different situation Research Tool : The type of this methodology is quantitative and the reason of choosing quantitative is because it refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships, meaning the problem already exist and in order to contain it the perfect kind is quantitative, the tool to answer the research question is questionnaire. And the shape of the questionnaire was based on the article review and the internet (and its attached in the appendix ). The place will be in Cairo and to evaluate the rate or the level of the discrimination against the women and elderly employees. The reason that we choose Cairo is because theres a significant increase in the number of discrimination cases in Cairo for example between 2000 and 2008 the number of discrimination cases increased by 27% Research design: the sample is non probability, convince sample because it will allow choosing the individuals that are easiest to reach or sampling that is done easy. And Convenience sampling does not represent the entire population so it is considered bias, therefore the sample is will be relative weight 80 females and 60 males, from different courses in private university in Cairo, aged 18 to 25 years undergraduate and graduate students, fresh graduate TAS. participants volunteered to participate in the questionnaire and did not receive any reward for their participation, the reason selecting under graduate student is because most the student work a part time to finish their internship and to get the experience so their opinions will be supported and they face a lot of challenge in the school and in their work so their opinions will be accredited. Furthermore there were noticeable result that most the people that been asking about the discrimination in their work place they refused and some hesitated to give the frank answer worrying about their boss reaction or their co-workers too , in addition student were more willing to give their frank answers and their opinion without any worries. Procedure: first the mailing list which will be available from HR department of the private college , after that will address the questionnaire to fresh graduate TAs and fourth year student from different faculties, we will wait one week to collect the responds from the mails and if that was not enough there will be a another round of mails and we will wait for the respond and if that was not efficient we will need to distribute the questionnaire in class and wait for the data collection the total time that it took to design the survey is one week and for distribute the survey among the student in (GUC) is one week , to analyze the result it took two weeks to analysis the survey and three weeks to get the result. Analysis: SPSS ( statistical package of social since ) program will be used in this study to order to know the appropriate way to analysis the result of the questionnaire and theres two ways to approach that, the first is descriptive statistics and the second is frequency and percentage. The student litter :T-test will be used to answer the research question through SPSS descriptive statistic will be conduct including the major of frequency and probability the major of center tendency contain : mean , mode , median, variance, slandered deviation . Conclusion: The main purpose of the present research was to analysis and to explore the types of the discrimination and to show the effect of each one on the people life First the Age discrimination, the effect of the Age discrimination against older workers, it could result that some workers get an early retirement because of their age or to reserve that place to a younger workers. And the gender or sex discrimination could affect the employees in many different way especially the harassments because is the most common way that could be use as a gender or sex discrimination and its very offensive manner, it could lead to encourage or allow other people to do so and that could be physically or verbally and it influence the individual work place. And to sum up the whole research by seeing the effect of each type and how people react to each type. Everyone should have the right to treated right and fairly and with respect regardless the age or the gender or the home town we all human and we all seeking for success and we should achieve it in healthy environment and in fair opportunities and because of these discrimination the government should concentrate on the consequences and put a strict punishment for any one not obey these rules. References: Barry m. Goldman. (2001). Toward an understanding of employment discrimination claiming: an integration of organizational justice and social information processing theories, vol .54, no 5, pp. 361-386. Bernstein, a. (2004, June 14). Womens pay: Why the gap remains a chasm. Business Week, (3887), 58-59. Retrieved December 15, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=truedb=aphAN=13374148site=eh ost-live Canadian Medical Association or its licensors (CMAJ) (2008). Gender discrimination: vol.179, No (6), 521-522. Chine .E, Kleiner.H. (1999). SEX DIS CRIMI NA TION IN HIR ING: Equal Opportunities International, vol. 5, No (6), 32-36 CYNTHIA J.;. ZUKEWICH,N, (2003). The Gender of Precarious Employment in Canada, vol.58, No (3), 454-482. Dennis.N, Thomas.K (2007). Ageism in the Workplace, vol.21, No (9), 84-89. Exten,J. (2005),Sexual advances . Cabinet Maker, 25- November. Eddy S. Willi H.. (2007). Are Men Always Picked Over Women? The Effects of Employment Equity, vol.76,177–187. Erbschloe,M . (2008), Gender Management. Association. Retrieved on 18-January 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier Gene .G, Kleiner .H. (2001). Age Discrimination in Hiring: Equal Opportunities International, vol. 20, No (8), 25-32. HAKIM ,C, (2006). Women, careers, and work-life preferences, vol.34, No (3),280–291. Julius, E.; Chamovitz Y, (2003). Equally unequal: Gender discrimination in the workplace among adults with mental retardation, vol.20, No (3), 205–213. Kapur .A, Kleiner .H. (2000). DISCRIMINATION INTHEWORKPLACE OFTHEBEERINDUSTRY, vol. 19, No (6), 371-380. Robert J. B, Feather (2007). GENDER, DISCRIMINATION BELIEFS, GROUP-BASED GUILT, AND RESPONSES TO AFFIRMATIVE ACTION FOR AUSTRALIAN WOMEN. Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol.31 No (4), 290-304 RÉAUME ,D, (2005). Comparing Theories of Sex Discrimination: The Role of Comparison, vol.25, No (3), 547–564. Theobald,S. (2006), Taking the pulse of discrimination. Associations Now, May. The Toronto Catholic District HR , Retrieved on 2-May 2007 from http://www.tcdsb.org/trustees/Agendas/HR,%202007-05-02/HR,%202007-05-02.html Vincent, J.; Tester.G, (2007). Age Discrimination, Social Closure and Employment, vol.86, No (1), 314-332. Roscigno.V ; Tester,G , (2007). Age Discrimination, Social Closure and Employment, vol.86, No (1), 314-333. LI LI. (2007),Gender discrimination in the labor market. BEUING REVIKW, 22- November.

milan music :: essays research papers

Objective description: The music is so abstract, it’s almost as if some people just got together randomly and decided to make some noise. It’s sometimes calming and sometimes stressful. It’s like a call and response music, one section makes a noise and the other sections respond accordingly with a similar sounding rhythm, very interesting to listen to. Steel drums, chimes, drums, drones, flutes, and some other instruments, not even sure what the names are. I have heard them before but do not know the name. There are different types of steel drums giving out different pitches and resonations. This music is just so abstract and unlike music today. No music I listen to can compare to this type of abstract material. The most prominent thing to me in this music is the rhythm. It’s not a mono rhythm; it’s more of an ever-changing rhythm which makes me try to pick up a new one every change of the call and response. I hear a very polyphony texture with man y different instruments playing at once or responding to each others calls. The piece does not use repetition as songs do today but the way they come back to the main rhythm is somewhat of a repeat. They just call out a rhythm and then someone tries to repeat it. This music is awkward to listen to at first but the second or third song I got really used to the abstract interactions the different instruments had with each other. Functional description: Gamelan music is a way of making social groups. Gamelan music is performed as a group effort, and so there is no place for an individual showoff. Traditionally, gamelan is only played at certain occasions such as ritual ceremonies, special community celebrations, shadow puppet shows, and for the royal family. Gamelan is also used to accompany dances in court, temple, and village rituals. Besides providing music for social functional ceremonies, gamelan also provides a livelihood for many professional musicians, and for specialized craftsmen who manufacture gamelan. I took a class at Sonoma and was somewhat familiar with this type or music but before that I had no prior experience with the music. The music grew on me over time and became less awkward. Its not something I would choose to listen to but it’s a good sense of what music around the world has to offer those of us in the United states that are not open-minded to other cultures music.

Jocelyn Susan Bell Burnell :: Essays Papers

Jocelyn Susan Bell Burnell An important woman in the contribution of science is Jocelyn Bell Burnell. She is a British astronomer that discovered pulsars, which is a tiny, very dense, rapidly rotating neutron star that appear to emit radiation in pulses. Jocelyn was born in 1943 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. She was raised near the Armagh Observatory, which obviously impacted her life She graduated from Glasgow University in 1965 with a B.S. degree in Physics, and in 1968 she received a Ph.D. in radio astronomy from the University of Cambridge in 1968. Jocelyn began her studies by conducting experiments of gamma-ray astronomy at the University of Southampton. From 1974 through 1982, Jocelyn worked in X-ray astronomy at the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at the University College in London. In 1982 she became a senior research fellow at the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh, Scotland, working with the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii and also did astrophysical research in the optical and infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum until 1991. Her discovery came from the initial research at Cambridge, where she built a radio telescope to track quasars, which are starlike objects that have a large red shift, emit powerful blue light, and can often emit radio waves. Then in 1967, while using the radio telescope, there was an unexpected discovery, which she shared among with Antony Hewish and other colleagues. Jocelyn noticed that there was a source of regular, intense pulses of radio waves that emitted a burst every 1.337 seconds. At first, there was an attempted explanation that this phenomenon might be a beacon from alien sources, so they initially named the pulsing source LGM or â€Å"Little Green Men†. After a few months, however, the astronomer had discovered a number of other sources in distant space and deduced from their far away locations and other characteristics, that these pulses must be occurring naturally. Then Jocelyn and her colleagues realized that these pulse patterns came from a special type of s tar that they naturally termed a pulsar. Her discovery has made a huge impact in the science world. Astronomers have now discovered over 400 pulsars, but only the Crab Pulsar and the Vela pulsar, can emit visibly detectable pulses. These pulsars are distinguished from other types of celestial radio sources by their emissions.